Due to the ever-changing nature of archaeology and dating technology, the literature currently considered the oldest in the world may shift in line with newer, more exciting technologies. Regardless, however, these ancient texts will always remain amongst the oldest known to humanity. Typically of Egyptian, Sumerian, or Akkadian origin, the world’s first works of literature provide an integral glimpse into how the peoples who initially recorded their histories, stories, and religious beliefs lived out their daily lives. By educating oneself in humanity’s past, one does nothing but forge a deep understanding and awareness of the present.
1. Instructions of Shuruppak
Dating back to circa 3000 BCE, Instructions of Shuruppak concerns itself with a mysterious, frequently overlooked Sumerian king and is currently one of the oldest known works of literature. Painfully little is written of the figure beyond his depiction in the Instructions, with some scholars speculating on whether or not he even existed in the first place. Regardless of his status as an actual flesh-and-blood human being, Shuruppak’s story involves the archetypical, ancient, and comfortably familiar great flood plotline. Having survived the devastating deluge along with his family, the clay tablets that contain the Instructions speak of the moral code the king upholds. These guidelines win him the favor of the gods, allowing him to rule Mesopotamia once the flood waters recede. Anyone familiar with the Old Testament – even peripherally – will recognize many of the points that Shuruppak discusses as an early version of the Ten Commandments. Other tidbits include basic advice regarding self-preservation, such as never traversing at night or refraining from “passing judgment” when consuming alcohol.
2. Epic of Etana
Legendary king of Kish Etana is the subject of an epic dating back to around 2600 BCE, though information on the ancient Akkadian story remains sadly scarce on the internet. The story of his life revolves around his devotion to the goddess Ishtar (also known as Inanna) and painful yearning for an heir to the throne. Having earned her favor, Etana accomplishes this goal through a series of fantastic adventures, including a trip to the heavens in order to find a potent plant that will grant his wishes. Along the way, he encounters a giant eagle and serpent beholden to the god Utu and struggles against incredible odds to seize upon the magical plant. His success results in the birth of his son Balih, who then takes up the mantle of king when it is implied that Etana and the giant eagle fly off together with Ishtar’s blessing and protection. Only fragments of the poem exist, however, with several lines and words missing, so it is, of course, entirely possible that much of the original author’s (or authors’) intent remains obscured to today’s readers.
3. Pyramid Texts
Considered by most historians, archaeologists, and theologians to be amongst the oldest religious documents in the world, the Pyramid Texts compile together inscriptions found on ancient Egyptian tombs for 10 members of the royal family. The writings accompanying these kings and queens span nearly 250 years, with the earliest discovered in the pyramid of Fifth Dynasty ruler Unas (also referred to as Unis) and dating to somewhere between 2400 and 2300 BCE. Carvings on both walls and sarcophagi alike outline in great detail how the ancient Egyptians perceived life after death as well as their stringent hierarchal social structure. Incantations, spells, and other mystic utterances provide appeals to the gods for the pharaoh or queen’s protection and immortality in addition to outlines of how their spirits can and cannot behave in the afterlife. One particularly infamous passage from Unas’s tomb, known by the foreboding moniker of “The Cannibal Hymn,” implies the practice of human sacrifice and consumption as a means of exerting power over the populace and internalizing the power of the gods themselves. As with almost all ancient works of literature, the Pyramid Texts constantly evolve and grow and shed new light on old stories and civilizations with the discovery of new fragments or even complete texts.
4. Code of Urukagina
Widely thought of as the very first political treatise ever committed to writing, what makes the Code of Urukagina unique to the other texts on this list is the fact that nobody has yet to actually unearth it. However, that it exists (or existed at one point) is undisputed. Clay tablets discovered during Urukagina’s reign over Legash between 2380 and 2360 BCE make a number of references to the work. Much of what the king had to say revolved around keeping peace, justice, and order in his territory, including waiving taxes for orphans and widows and allowing the impoverished a high degree of control over selling their wares to more prosperous peers. Women practicing polyandry no longer needed to worry about stoning, either, thanks to Urukagina’s devotion to equality, personal freedom, and social justice.
5. Palermo Stone
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Dating back to the 25th Century BCE – which lined up with the 5th Dynasty - this impressive slab of carved, fragmented basalt currently exists as one of ancient Egypt’s earliest works of historical literature. First published straight from the stele in 1902, the book begins by detailing the names of numerous members of the royal family dating back to the 1st Dynasty. However, the true meaning of the list remains largely obscured, even with the availability of a reasonable translation. Beyond that, the Palermo Stone also acted as a record for the height of and significant events related to the annual Nile flood – including painstaking details regarding the dates as well. Prior to being pieced together, it lay scattered across Egypt in 7 different pieces, with one even finding another life as a door stop! Since then, it has become the subject of at least 13 separate studies and remains an integral element of understanding how the ancient world operated and what it considered important enough to forever immortalize in writing.
6. The Wisdom of Ptah-Hotep
The actual date of the papyrus scrolls that comprise The Wisdom of Ptah-Hotep (occasionally referred to as The Maxims of Ptah-Hotep or The Instructions of Ptah-Hotep) is disputed, with some claiming 2400 BCE and others around 2600 BCE – if not older. No matter the reality of the date, though, everyone agrees that the book originates in ancient Egypt and was penned by Fifth Dynasty vizier Ptah-Hotep. Serving under Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi, he outlined an extensive series of advisements on living a virtuous, peaceful life of civic duty and a rejection of selfishness and greed. It also provides a framework for the Egyptian hierarchal structure as well, discussing how a servant and master should interact with one another in addition to the way rulers come to power through divine will. Several translations of this ancient tome exist, though the most popular seems to be the 2006 edition by renowned French Egyptologist Christian Jacq. He opted to go with the title listed here.
7. En-hedu-ana’s Hymns
Frequently considered the very first explicitly named author in recorded history, Sumerian En-hedu-ana (also known as Enheduana or Enheduanna) worked as a high priestess in the service of Nanna, the moon god. During her tenure, she penned 42 amazingly eloquent temple hymns to praise not only her main master, but love and war goddess Ishtar/Inanna and their respective institutions of worship as well. While En-hedu-ana did not create the concept of honoring the gods through song and poetry, she popularized the practice with her talent and helped historians shed even more light on the concept of making religion more personal and accessible to the masses. The high priestess lived from 2285 to 2250 BCE and many contemporary feminist scholars continuously hold her up as an icon of women’s empowerment. However, some historians believe that many of En-hedu-ana’s verses stemmed more from a desire to bolster the popularity of her father, King Sargon, who assigned her the position of high priestess to begin with. Regardless of her motivations, of course, her influence as a religious and literary figure both significantly impacted the course of human history and its perceptions and practices.
8. The Epic of Gilgamesh
As with other ancient texts, historians and literary critics cannot pinpoint the exact date when The Epic of Gilgamesh was written, though it was likely around 2000 BCE. Originating as a series of Sumerian legends, most scholars are more familiar and comfortable with the Akkadian adaptation that cropped up around 1,000 years later - so much so that it is considered the standard used in academia. The epic poem likely began its life as an oral tale later transcribed on 12 clay tablets, depicting the mythic adventures of the celebrated King Gilgamesh and his partner-in-crime Enkidu as they do battle against monsters and stand toe-to-toe with the gods themselves. Many of the stories – most especially the one involving a massive divine flood intending to eliminate all life on Earth as a means of renewal – likely inspired those found in the Bible and later texts. As one of the most beloved and influential epics of all time, it also came to impact religious traditions beyond the flood story as well. Lilith actually made her first appearance in The Epic of Gilgamesh, though short her later demonic traits.
9. The Code of Ur-Nammu
Written and between 2100 and 2050 BCE, The Code of Ur-Nammu discusses the legal philosophies of the titular Sumerian king. The majority of the points made involve outlining suitable punishments for specific offenses – for example, murder and robbery both warranted the death penalty, while slaves who speak out of place when talking with or about their masters and mistresses found their mouths scrubbed raw with 1 quart’s worth of salt. Other laws address marital arrangements and contracts, including divorce protocol, perjury, assault and battery, adultery, servant behavior, agriculture, and many more facets of daily life. Much of Ur-Nammu’s writings seem far stricter and Draconian when compared with Code of Urukagina and reflected the popular assumption at the time regarding how kings rose to power with the blessings of the gods themselves. Samuel Kramer translated Ur-Nammu’s philosophies from the first 2 tablets unearthed in Nippur, and more and more information became available as the digs progressed. Today, at least 40 out of the 57 laws have been fully interpreted and related to historians and scholars.
10. Coffin Texts
As with the ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, the Coffin Texts involve a series of spells and incantations found on sarcophagi throughout the country. Dating back to the Middle Kingdom – which spanned between 2200 and 1800 BCE – many of them feature prophecies and ethical guidelines for transitioning to a gratifying afterlife. This is significant, because it marked a time in ancient history when the lower classes could enjoy some of the perks afforded to royalty. Previously, only the elite could afford to surround themselves with spells. With the popularization of carving said incantations on coffins, more individuals could purchase vessels to shuttle their souls to the gods upon their demise. Because of their similarities with Judeo-Christian moral codes, stories, and beliefs, many historians and theologians believe that the Egpytian Coffin Texts directly inspired those who penned the Old Testament. Some do not, however, though the resemblance remains undeniable.
Until texts predating their existence begin cropping up, these works of literature currently hold the title of the world’s oldest. They provide an excellent window into ancient civilizations, allowing people to study how they came to impact the current state of humanity. Discover the voice of the original writers. Study what they have to say and dissect the similarities and differences between how they lived their lives and how people today go about their own business. Do not let their significance go ignored beyond the academic arena.
